Rwanda: Education Country Brief

Selected Literature

Supporting countries in using evidence for policymaking is an objective shared by many organizations and initiatives. Under the KIX initiative for which UNESCO IICBA manages the KIX Africa 19 Hub and collaborates with KIX Africa 21, the focus is on six themes: (i) learning assessment systems (ii) early childhood education; (iii) teaching and learning (iv) the data challenge; (v) gender equality; and (vi) equity and inclusion. For each topic, a link is provided to the GPE-KIX Discussion paper written at the start of the initiative in 2019 and additional publications that could be useful for policy. By necessity, to keep this brief short, only a few resources can be mentioned, but additional resources can be accessed through digital repositories listed below. A brief note on UNESCO IICBA research is also provided.

Learning Assessment Systems [GPE-KIX Discussion Paper]. Learning assessment tools and systems are essential to gauge and improve learning outcomes for students. A primer on large scale assessments from the World Bank provides guidance on such assessments, as does a review of learning assessments in Africa from UNESCO IIEP. Among regional assessments, PASEC (Programme for the Analysis of Education Systems) for francophone countries in West and Central Arica and SEACMEQ (Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality) for anglophone countries in East and Southern Africa are the best known. These instruments target primary schools. Other tools that focus and assess the learning outcomes of young learners include the Early Grade Reading and Mathematics Assessments (EGRA/EGMA). Supported and funded primarily by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), these assessments are administered by different agencies such as the World Bank, RTI International and others across the continent. The West African Examinations Council also provides guidance on examinations and certificate accreditation in Anglophone countries of West Africa. Also interesting is PISA for development which is being piloted in secondary schools in a few African countries. 

Rwanda does not participate in these international assessments but has participated in the Early Grade Reading Assessment. The National Examination and School Inspection Authority administers the Primary School Leaving National Examination  during the sixth year of education.  Other examinations consist of the Ordinary and Advanced Level National Examinations which take place in the ninth and twelfth grades, respectively. The Ministry of Education of Rwanda (MINEDUC) introduced the Learning Achievement in Rwandan Schools (LARS) to assess the literacy and numeracy skills of students in primary schools. The full report is available on the website of the National Examination and School Inspection Authority. Rwanda has had a National Learning, Teaching and Assessment Policy to ensure that assessments are ‘explicit, valid and reliable’.

Improving Teaching and Learning [GPE-KIX Discussion Paper]. How teachers and students interact and engage is key to improve learning outcomes. Cost-effective approaches pr ‘smart buys’ to improve learning in low-income countries are discussed in a World Bank report. Teaching is paramount, and therefore so are teacher policies to ensure that successful teachers make for successful students. Standards for the teaching profession were proposed by Education International and UNESCO with regional standards available from the Africa Union Commission, including a framework for standards and competencies. 

Rwanda’s education system follows a structure of 3-6-3-3-3/4, that includes three years of pre-primary, six years in primary school, three years each in Junior and Senior Secondary School, and a three or four -year period at the university to achieve a bachelor’s degree. In 2019, the World Bank allocated $200 million to boost basic education in Rwanda focusing on improving teacher competency and student retention.  In Rwanda, teacher compensation improved twice in recent years. A 10% salary increase in 2019 and a 40-88% salary increase (depending on qualifications) for teachers in July 2022. Additionally, pay-for-performance contracts have been piloted with upper primary teachers, with promising results suggesting improved outcomes and reduced absenteeism.

Strengthening Early Childhood Care and Education [GPE-KIX Discussion Paper]. Experiences children undergo in early childhood can affect their entire life. Nurturing care is essential. Essential interventions in early childhood include pre-primary education.  Yet less than half of young children in Africa benefit from pre-primary education according to the Global Education Monitoring report 2021.  The Office of Research at UNICEF maintains a webpage with useful links to organizations working on child-related themes organized by subject, including early childhood. 

In Rwanda, a major challenge to enabling early childhood development is stunting. The Demographic and Health Survey (2019/2020), estimates that about 33 percent of Rwandan children aged 6-59 months are stunted. Over time, chronically malnourished children are at a higher risk of underperforming in school. Children from disadvantaged backgrounds are particularly affected, with over three times the likelihood of severe stunting compared to their wealthier counterparts. 

In Rwanda, the net enrolment rate for pre-primary education was at 24.2% in 2021/2022 according to government figures. UNICEF Rwanda estimates that just 1 percent of children under three have access to preschool programs and other early learning facilities. However, this level is scarcely present in Rwanda, as it is government policy for children of this age to receive early education within their families. The official school age for pre-primary is 3-5 years.

One study examined the short- and medium-term impacts of a randomized group-based early child development program that focused on parents of children aged six to twenty four months in rural area of Rwanda. The program involved parent engagement through activities like radio shows and discussions during seventeen weekly village meetings. After twelve months, children in the treated groups showed improvements in communication, problem-solving, and personal social skills. These effects persisted in the full treatment group even after nearly three years. Basic data on early childhood development are available from a nurturing care profile.

Achieving Gender Equality In and Through Education [GPE-KIX Discussion Paper]. The cost of gender inequality is massive, as is the cost of not educating girls, including in Africa. When girls lack education, this affects their earnings in adulthood, the number of children they will have and their health, as well as their agency, among others. When girls are not in school, they are also at higher risk of child marriage, with again high costs for them, their children, and society. In Africa, the African Union’s International Centre for the Education of Girls and Women in Africa supports member states on girls’ education.

In Rwanda, a 2022 UNICEF report on Child Marriage in Eastern and Southern Africa estimates that 1 in 20 young women were first married or in union before the age of 18. Thirteen percent of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18 had no education as compared to 3% who had at least a secondary education.

Data Management Systems Strengthening [GPEKIX Discussion Paper]. Education management information systems (EMIS) are key for management. They can also support evidence-based policymaking. In Africa, the African Union’s Institute of Education for Development supports member states on EMIS. In addition to EMIS data, other data sources including household surveys, school surveys, student assessments, and impact evaluations of pilot interventions are essential to inform policy. 

MINEDUC is the national custodian of education statistics. Key information on education statistics is published on the Ministry’s website annually in the Education Statistical Yearbook. Since the 2021/22 school year, the Ministry has been publishing its report from the School Data Management System, a web-based system used to collect information from pre-primary (ISCED01) to secondary education (ISED 3). With the support of UNICEF, the country is undertaking the activity of developing an integrated system to have a common system for collecting information from ISCED0 to ISCED8. 

In 2021, the Ministry of Education launched the Teacher Management and Information System (TMIS) to create a more efficient and data-driven approach to managing the teaching workforce in collaboration with UNICEF and the Mastercard Foundation. The system has been hailed as a “game changer” for many teachers in the country.

Equity and Inclusion/Leaving No One Behind [GPEKIX Discussion Paper]. Equity and inclusion are major challenges for education systems. Gender, disability, ethnicity, indigenous status, poverty, displacement, and many other factors may all lead some children to lack access to education. In Africa especially, gaps in educational outcomes between groups may be large, as illustrated in the case of disability. Equity must be at the center of education policy on the continent. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) are Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) are two major international frameworks related to disability-inclusive education exist.

The Rwandan government provides free and compulsory education for nine years of basic education. Free education is now being expanded to twelve years of education. A joint report from the Education Commission, Education Development Trust and others assessed how school leaders were able to ensure continuous learning and support during school closures and reopening. It identified engagement with caregivers and communities, leader and teacher collaboration and tracking, sharing, and providing targeted support as key factors in enhancing learning outcomes. 

Rwanda ratified the CRC in 1991 and ratified the CRPD in 2008. The country’s Law Number 01/2007 of 20/01/2007, relating to Protection of Disabled Persons in General (Codes and Laws of Rwanda) addresses special education.

Note on UNESCO IICBA Research. IICBA recently launched a new program of applied research on teacher and education issues in Africa. A total of 200 publications have been completed from January to September 2023, including studies, discussion papers, training guides, reports, knowledge briefs, event summaries, and interviews. Several of those publications focus on Rwanda. All publications are available on IICBA’s website. 

Country Policies 

Information on Rwanda’s education system and policies is available on the website of the Ministry of Education which covers basic and higher education as well as technical education and vocational training (TVET). The Education Sector Plan (2018-2024) is the flagship policy guiding the sector.  Backward and forward-looking Joint Reviews of the Education Sector  from 2012/13 to 2023/24 provide a collaborative, prospective and retrospective overview the country’s progress in the education sector, examining its strengths, weaknesses, and providing recommendations for further improvement.

The Ministerial Order on Education Standard establishes the benchmarks for education in Rwanda, encompassing standards for curriculum, instruction, assessment, and teacher training. The Special Needs and Inclusive Education Policy (2018/19-2023/24) emphasizes the government's commitment to providing inclusive education for all students, including those with disabilities. The Girl’s Education Policy (2008) articulates the government's dedication to improving girls' education outcomes with the Revised National Gender Policy (2021) providing a framework for addressing gender disparities in various spheres, including education and employment. The Official National Education Statistics present official statistics on education, encompassing data on enrollment, attendance, achievement, and other relevant indicators. Other education policies compiled by the Rwandan government that provide a comprehensive overview of education policies across various areas can be found here. Rwanda has a dedicated department for teacher development, management, and career development under Rwanda basic education board.

A few organizations aim to capture education policies on specific themes across countries, including Rwanda. UNESCO’s Profiles Enhancing Education Reviews (PEER) covering the themes of the Global Education Monitoring reports, including: inclusion in education (2020 Report), non-state actors in education (2021/22 Report), technology in education (2023 Report) and leadership in education (2024/25 Report, forthcoming). PEER also covers additional topics on key SDG 4 issues, including financing for equity, climate change communication and education, and comprehensive sexuality education. 

Knowledge Repositories

Only a few links to the literature on education by theme for Rwanda, Africa, and globally were provided earlier to keep the brief short, but repositories of digital resources facilitate access to the literature. A few of those repositories are listed below by alphabetical order:

• 3ie Development Evidence Portal (DEP): DEP is a repository of rigorous evidence on what works in international development, including in the area of education. 
• AERD: The African Education Research Database hosted by the Faculty of Education at the University of Cambridge collates research by African scholars on education.
• African Development Bank: The Bank has publications that cover a range of topics, including education. It also hosts ADEA which also has selected publications. 
• Global Partnership for Education: GPE is one of the largest funders for education in Africa. It collaborates with Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC) to build and mobilize evidence on education through the Global Partnership for Education Knowledge and Innovation Exchange (GPE KIX), which has a Library of research outputs.
• J-PAL: The Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab maintains a database of impact evaluations and policy publications, quite a few of which are about education.
• RePEc: Research Papers in Economics is a large archive of research on economics, including the economics of education. It can be searched through IDEAS.
• Teacher Task Force (TTF): The TTF is collaborative across many organizations hosted by UNESCO. It maintains a Knowledge Hub with resources on teacher policies. 
• UNESCO HQ: UNESCO is the lead agency in the UN systems on education. Its Digital Library includes UNESCO Open Access which includes most UNESCO publications. 
• UNESCO GEM: UNESCO publishes annually a Global Education Monitoring Report on a different theme each year with associated resources and background papers.
• UNESCO IICBA: IICBA is a Category 1 Institute at UNESCO. It conducts research on education in Africa with several publication series and maintains a digital repository.
• UNICEF: Publications can be found under Reports, the Office of Global Insight and Policy, and the Office of Research. Also of interest is the Data Must Speak initiative.
• World Bank: The Open Knowledge Repository provides access to the Bank’s research. It includes a section on Africa with country pages including for Rwanda. 

Many organizations maintain websites that include country pages with useful information. Examples include the GPE Rwanda Country Page; World Bank Rwanda Country Page; UNESCO IIEP Country Page. Many organizations also maintain blogs on education issues, often with stories on Africa. Examples include Education for All (Global Partnership for Education), Education for Global Development (World Bank), Education Plus Development (Brookings Institutions), and World Education Blog (UNESCO). Beyond blogs focusing on education, blogs on Africa more generally may also provide useful resources. This includes Africa Can End Poverty and Nasikiliza (the World Bank’s two blogs for sub-Saharan Africa ) and  Arab Voices (the Bank’s blog for the Middle East and North Africa).

Data

It is often useful to download data for Rwanda and other countries from multi-country databases, like the UNESCO institute of statistics  database. The largest database on development, including education data, is the World Bank’s World Development Indicators (WDI). The World Bank also maintain the Education Statistics (EdStats) database. Both World Bank databases rely in part for education on data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics. UNESCO also maintains the Global Education Observatory and the World Inequality Database in Education (WIDE), as well as a wide range of other databases. Specific estimates are occasionally maintained by other agencies. For example, UNICEF provides data on out-of-school rates, adjusted net attendance rates, completion rates, foundational learning skills, information communication technology skills, youth and adult literacy rates, and school-age digital connectivity. Another useful reference is StatCompiler which provides data at various levels of aggregation from Demographic and Health Surveys across countries and over time, including Rwanda. For comparison purposes, data from the OECD for member and partner countries (including South Africa) can be useful.

References

References are available through the links provided in this brief. We would also like to acknowledge Mr. Chrisophe Nsengiyaremye, Ms. Benita Nyampundu and other colleagues at the Ministry of Education for their valuable advice during the validation process of this document.