Mozambique: Education Country Brief

December 2023
Mozambique flag
-

Background

This brief provides data and references to the literature on issues that matter for education in Mozambique. It is part of a series that provides a brief introduction to the state of education systems in Africa. The work was prepared for country pages on IICBA’s website and a digital repository of resources at the country, sub-regional, and continental level. The brief series also informs work conducted in the context of (i) the European Union’s Africa Regional Teachers’ Initiative and (ii) the KIX (Knowledge and Innovation eXchange) Africa 19 Hub for anglophone countries that promotes the use of evidence for policy making and benefits from funding from the Global Partnership for Education and Canada’s International Development Research Center. This brief and its associated webpage are meant to be updated as new information becomes available, at least on a yearly basis. 

Key resources: This brief provides the following resources: 

  • Educational outcomes: Estimates are provided for learning poverty (the share of 10-year-old children not able to read and understand a simple text), educational attainment and/or enrollment rates at various levels of education, the components of the human capital index, and human capital wealth as a share of national wealth. 
  • Selected literature: Links are provided to selected publications at the global, regional, and country levels with a focus on six themes: (i) learning assessment systems; (ii) early childhood education; (iii) teaching and learning; (iv) the data challenge; (v) gender equality; and (vi) equity and inclusion. 
  • Country policies: Links are provided to key institutions (including Ministries) managing the education system, selected policy and planning documents, and websites that aim to provide comparative data on policies across countries.
  • Knowledge repositories and other resources: Links are provided to a dozen digital repositories that collate publications and resources on education issues in Africa. 
  • Data: Links are provided to data sources that can help inform education policy.

This country brief provides a brief introduction to selected issues and research relevant to Mozambique’ education system and links to resources that may be useful to official of Ministries of Education and other education stakeholders. A special focus is placed on thematic areas from the KIX (Knowledge and Innovation eXchange) initiative for which UNESCO IICBA manages the Secretariat of the Africa KIX 19 Hub. Together with the associated webpages on UNESCO IICBA’s website, the brief is to be updated as new information becomes available, typically every year. The brief starts with a review of basic data on educational outcomes including learning poverty, educational attainment, and the human capital index. The focus then shifts to information related to the thematic areas of focus of the KIX Africa 19 Hub, namely: (i) learning assessment (ii) early childhood education; (iii) teaching & learning (iv) data challenge; (v) gender equality; and (vi) equity and inclusion. The brief also includes links to country documents and processes as well as a range of other resources and websites.

Educational Outcomes and Human Capital

Mozambique, like many other African countries, is facing a learning crisis. In sub-Saharan Africa, learning poverty, defined as the share of children unable to read and understand an age-appropriate text by age 10, is estimated at 89 percent by the World Bank, UNESCO, and other organizations. While specific country estimates are not available for Mozambique, the World Bank Capital Index suggests concerning developments. According to their data, students in Mozambique score 368 on a harmonized test score scale where 625 represents advanced attainment and 300 represents minimum attainment. This benchmark corresponds to the advanced achievement standard set by the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. It is imperative to improve the quality of the education provided in schools. 

Schooling does not imply learning, but lack of learning increases the likelihood of dropping out of school. According to the World Bank and UNESCO Institute of Statistics, the primary school completion rate was at 61 percent in 2020 for boys and 55 percent for girls. The lower secondary completion rate was at 33% for boys and 31% for girls in 2020. Gross enrollment in tertiary education was at 8 percent for men in 2018 versus 7 percent for women. 

Another useful statistic is the Human Capital Index for Mozambique also provides useful statistics based on five other variables: (i) the probability that a child will survive past age five (93 percent); (ii) the years of schooling that a child is expected to complete by age 18 (7.6 years); (iii) the learning-adjusted years of schooling that a child is expected to complete, a measure combining the two previous measures (4.5 years); (iv) the adult survival rate (68 percent of 15-year olds surviving until age 60); and finally (v) the probability that a child will not be stunted in early childhood (58 percent). Based on these five variables and the harmonized test score, the expected productivity in adulthood of a child is estimated in comparison to full productivity that could be expected with full education and health. The estimate is that a child born in Mozambique today will reach only 36 percent of its potential. This is lower than the average for sub-Saharan Africa region and Low-income countries.

One last statistic may help make the case for the importance of investing in education for the country’s development. A country’s wealth mainly consists of three types of capital: (1) Produced capital comes from  investments in assets such as factories, equipment, or infrastructure; (2) Natural capital consists of assets such as agricultural land and both renewable and nonrenewable natural resources; (3) Human capital is measured as the present value of the future earnings of the labor force, which in turn depends on the level of educational attainment of the labor force. The latest estimates from the World Bank suggest that human capital wealth in Mozambique accounts for 55 percent of national wealth. 

Mozambique table
-

Selected Literature

Supporting countries in using evidence for policymaking is an objective shared by many organizations and initiatives. Under the KIX initiative for which UNESCO IICBA manages the KIX Africa 19 Hub and collaborates with KIX Africa 21, the focus is on six themes: (i) learning assessment systems (ii) early childhood education; (iii) teaching and learning (iv) the data challenge; (v) gender equality; and (vi) equity and inclusion. For each topic, a link is provided to the GPE-KIX Discussion paper written at the start of the initiative in 2019 and additional publications that could be useful for policy. By necessity, to keep this brief short, only a few resources can be mentioned, but additional resources can be accessed through digital repositories listed below. A brief note on UNESCO IICBA research is also provided.

Learning Assessment Systems [GPE-KIX Discussion Paper]. Learning assessment tools and systems are essential to gauge and improve learning outcomes for students. A primer on large scale assessments from the World Bank provides guidance on such assessments, as does a review of learning assessments in Africa from UNESCO IIEP. Among regional assessments, PASEC (Programme for the Analysis of Education Systems) for francophone countries in West and Central Arica and SEACMEQ (Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality) for anglophone countries in East and Southern Africa are the best known. These instruments target primary schools. Other tools that focus and assess the learning outcomes of young learners include the Early Grade Reading and Mathematics Assessments (EGRA/EGMA). Supported and funded primarily by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), these assessments are administered by different agencies such as the World Bank, RTI International and others across the continent. The West African Examinations Council also provides guidance on examinations and certificate accreditation in Anglophone countries of West Africa. Also interesting is PISA for development which is being piloted in secondary schools in a few African countries. Mozambique participates in the SEACMEQ program and has also participated in the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA). 

The Ministry of Education and Human Development conduct examinations at the end of years 3, 6, 9, and 12. In an appraisal of the country’s Education Sector Plan 2020-2029, the Global Partnership for Education recommended a clarification of the nature of formative and normative examinations during these assessments. A National Qualifications Framework that provides guidance on assessments in higher education and technical and vocational training is underdevelopment.

Improving Teaching and Learning [GPE-KIX Discussion Paper]. How teachers and students interact and engage is key to improve learning outcomes. Cost-effective approaches pr ‘smart buys’ to improve learning in low-income countries are discussed in a World Bank report. Teaching is paramount, and therefore so are teacher policies to ensure that successful teachers make for successful students. Standards for the teaching profession were proposed by Education International and UNESCO with regional standards available from the Africa Union Commission, including a framework for standards and competencies. 

Mozambique uses a 6-6-4 structure that includes six years of primary education and six years of secondary education. The World Bank’s 2018 Service Delivery Indicators (SDI) found that across the country student learning is lagging. The mean student assessment score stood at 31.3 out of 100 on average, with math (31.4 out of 100) and Portuguese language (31.2 out of 100) outcomes showing striking resemblance. Less than half of fourth-grade students could accurately recognize a word, and less than 20 percent could comprehend a straightforward paragraph. The WB report identified that although teacher absenteeism had reduced from 45% to 30% from 2014 to 2018, it still posed a major factor in jeopardizing the learning outcomes of students.

Strengthening Early Childhood Care and Education [GPE-KIX Discussion Paper]. Experiences children undergo in early childhood can affect their entire life. Nurturing care is essential. Essential interventions in early childhood include pre-primary education. Yet less than half of young children in Africa benefit from pre-primary education according to the Global Education Monitoring report 2021.  The Office of Research at UNICEF maintains a webpage with useful links to organizations working on child-related themes organized by subject, including early childhood. 

A 2012 randomized control trial compared the outcomes of children enrolled in community-driven preschools with children not enrolled in early learning programmes. In communities where children entered these preschools, primary school enrollment rates notably rose. Children who attended preschool were 24 percent more likely to enroll in primary school by the end of the study compared to the control group, and they tend to enroll at the appropriate age. Additionally, beneficiary children allocate an average of 7.2 extra hours per week to school and homework-related activities while reducing their time spent on family farm work and community meetings. Notably, participation in the preschool program resulted in improvements in cognitive and problem-solving abilities, better fine motor skills, and improved socio-emotional and behavioral outcomes. Basic data on early childhood development are available from a nurturing care profile.

Achieving Gender Equality In and Through Education [GPE-KIX Discussion Paper]. The cost of gender inequality is massive, as is the cost of not educating girls, including in Africa. When girls lack education, this affects their earnings in adulthood, the number of children they will have and their health, as well as their agency, among others. When girls are not in school, they are also at higher risk of child marriage, with again high costs for them, their children, and society. In Africa, the African Union’s International Centre for the Education of Girls and Women in Africa supports member states on girls’ education. 

A 2022 UNICEF report on Child Marriage in Eastern and Southern Africa estimates that 1 in 2 young women, in Mozambique, were first married or in union before the age of 18. 66% of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18 had no education as compared to 31% who had at least a secondary education. UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti (2019) carried out a Longitudinal Assessment of School Dropout to explore the drivers of primary school dropout and found out students enrolled in classes led by female instructors, and under the guidance of female school leaders had lower dropout rates. The dropout rates for students taught by female teachers were notably lower, standing at 10.2 percent for boys and 11.3 percent for girls. In contrast, those taught by male teachers experienced higher dropout rates, reaching 18.2 percent for boys and 17.8 percent for girls.

Data Management Systems Strengthening [GPEKIX Discussion Paper]. Education management information systems (EMIS) are key for management. They can also support evidence-based policymaking. In Africa, the African Union’s Institute of Education for Development supports member states on EMIS. In addition to EMIS data, other data sources including household surveys, school surveys, student assessments, and impact evaluations of pilot interventions are essential to inform policy. 

According to a 2019 GPE report, Mozambique utilizes a robust EMIS. Every year, a comprehensive data gathering process takes place, known as the "March 3rd data collection." This initiative encompasses a wide range of information, including enrolment figures, student retention rates, dropout statistics, resource availability, teacher allocation, and data pertaining to bilingual education, among other categories.

Equity and Inclusion/Leaving No One Behind [GPEKIX Discussion Paper]. Equity and inclusion are major challenges for education systems. Gender, disability, ethnicity, indigenous status, poverty, displacement, and many other factors may all lead some children to lack access to education. In Africa especially, gaps in educational outcomes between groups may be large, as illustrated in the case of disability. Equity must be at the center of education policy on the continent. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) are Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) are two major international frameworks related to disability-inclusive education exist. 

The National Education System Law, revised in 2018, changed the number of mandatory years of education from seven to nine. Education during this period is also intended to be free. A 2018 UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti study found out that national dropout rates in primary school differed widely. It found that dropout rates in urban areas (3.4%) were more than four times lower than dropout rates in rural areas (15%). Mozambique ratified the CRC in 1994 and ratified the CPRD in 2012.

Note on UNESCO IICBA Research. IICBA recently launched a new program of applied research on teacher and education issues in Africa. A total of 200 publications have been completed from January to September 2023, including studies, discussion papers, training guides, reports, knowledge briefs, event summaries, and interviews. Several of those publications focus on Mozambique. All publications are available on IICBA’s website. 

Country Policies 

Information on Mozambique’s education system and policies is available on the website of the Government of Mozambique. The Strategic Education Plan (2020-2029) is the flagship policy guiding the sector. A 2020 evaluation of Mozambique's education sector plan [Portuguese] assesses progress, success, and areas for improvement towards an earlier education strategic plan. A 2019 policy on the use of information, communication and technology (ICT) in the country outlines how ICT will be integrated in the education sector. In 2019, UNESCO assisted the Mozambique Ministry of Education by reviewing education policies, offering an analysis of the country's education system with a focus on the three national priorities: System-Wide Policy and Planning (PPTS), teacher training and development policies, and the quality of education. Another UNESCO policy document (2020) introduces the Science, Technology, and Innovation Country Profile for Mozambique, a comprehensive study conducted in collaboration with the government and the Islamic Development Bank.

Mozambique does not have a teaching service commission.  [GM1] 

*A few organizations aim to capture education policies on specific themes across countries, including Mozambique. UNESCO’s Profiles Enhancing Education Reviews (PEER) covering the themes of the Global Education Monitoring reports, including: inclusion in education (2020 Report), non-state actors in education (2021/22 Report), technology in education (2023 Report) and leadership in education (2024/25 Report, forthcoming). PEER also covers additional topics on key SDG 4 issues, including financing for equity, climate change communication and education, and comprehensive sexuality education. 

Knowledge Repositories

Only a few links to the literature on education by theme for Mozambique, Africa, and globally were provided earlier to keep the brief short, but repositories of digital resources facilitate access to the literature. A few of those repositories are listed below by alphabetical order:

Many organizations maintain websites that include country pages with useful information. Examples include the GPE Mozambique Country Page; World Bank Mozambique Country Page; UNESCO IIEP Country Page. Many organizations also maintain blogs on education issues, often with stories on Africa. Examples include Education for All (Global Partnership for Education), Education for Global Development (World Bank), Education Plus Development (Brookings Institutions), and World Education Blog (UNESCO). Beyond blogs focusing on education, blogs on Africa more generally may also provide useful resources. This includes Africa Can End Poverty and Nasikiliza (the World Bank’s two blogs for sub-Saharan Africa ) and  Arab Voices (the Bank’s blog for the Middle East and North Africa).

Data

It is often useful to download data for Mozambique and other countries from multi-country databases. The largest database on development, including education data, is the World Bank’s World Development Indicators (WDI). The World Bank also maintain the Education Statistics (EdStats) database. Both World Bank databases rely in part for education on data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics. UNESCO also maintains the Global Education Observatory and the World Inequality Database in Education (WIDE), as well as a wide range of other databases. Specific estimates are occasionally maintained by other agencies. For example, UNICEF provides data on out-of-school rates, adjusted net attendance rates, completion rates, foundational learning skills, information communication technology skills, youth and adult literacy rates, and school-age digital connectivity. Another useful reference is StatCompiler which provides data at various levels of aggregation from Demographic and Health Surveys across countries and over time, including Mozambique. For comparison purposes, data from the OECD for member and partner countries (including South Africa) can be useful.

References

References are available through the links provided in this brief. We would also like to acknowledge Mr. Sérgio Cossa and other colleagues at the Ministry of Education and Human Development for their valuable advice during the validation process of this document.

 

 [GM1]This information needs verification.